Mining Raw Materials

Lithium-ion batteries can be broken down into three basic parts: the cathode, or positive electrode; the anode, or the negative electrode; and the electrolyte, or the chemical compound in between them.

The raw materials that are necessary for making the components for the cathode and the anode in lithium-ion battery cells are nickel, manganese, lithium, graphite and cobalt. All five appear on the European Union’s list of critical raw materials.

Manganese

Manganese (Mn) is very widely used in steelmaking, and high-purity manganese is an established ingredient of lithium-ion cathodes such as NMC (nickel manganese cobalt). Research continues into new uses: nanosheets of manganese dioxide, for example, have been shown to significantly improve cathode performance in lithium-sulphur batteries, a next-generation chemistry. This matters because manganese costs far less than cobalt.

Lithium

Lithium (Li) is a key component in a range of innovative industries due to its high-energy storage, insulating and heat resistant capabilities. Lithium is a soft silvery-white metal which is highly reactive and does not occur in nature in its elemental form. In nature, it occurs as compounds within hard rock deposits and salt brines.

Lithium and its chemical compounds have a wide range of industrial applications resulting in numerous chemical and technical uses. Lithium has the highest electrochemical potential of all metals, a key property in its role in lithium-ion batteries. Rechargeable lithium-ion batteries typically weigh approximately 75% less than an equivalent lead acid battery, making them an ideal solution for high-performance products, including electric cars, bikes and wheelchairs.

Nickel

Nickel (Ni) has long been widely used in batteries, most commonly in nickel cadmium (NiCd) and in the longer-lasting nickel metal hydride (NiMH) rechargeable batteries, which came to the fore in the 1980s. Their adoption in power tools and early digital cameras revealed the potential for portable devices, changing expectations of how we work and live. Lithium-ion batteries reached the market in 1991, initially in camcorders, eventually finding their way into smartphones, laptops and the numerous other portable devices we now take for granted. In 1997 the Toyota Prius brought the first significant use of NiMH batteries in vehicles.

The major advantage of using nickel in batteries is that it helps deliver higher energy density and greater storage capacity at a lower cost. Further advances in nickel-containing battery technology mean it is set for an increasing role in energy storage systems, helping make the cost of each kWh of battery storage more competitive. It is making energy production from intermittent renewable energy sources such as wind and solar replace fossil fuels more viable.

Nickel is an essential component for the cathodes of many secondary battery designs.

Cobalt

Cobalt (Co) is mostly recovered as a by-product of copper and nickel production. Its high cost and concentrated supply have pushed battery manufacturers towards low-cobalt and cobalt-free chemistries: lithium iron phosphate (LFP) cells, which contain no cobalt, accounted for more than half of the EV batteries deployed worldwide in 2025. Cobalt nevertheless remains important in the nickel-rich cathodes used where high energy density matters, and batteries account for roughly 70% of global cobalt demand.

Cobalt contributes to the thermal stability and structural integrity of the cathode, and plays an important role in achieving high energy densities.

Electrolyte Materials

The electrolyte plays a key role in transporting the positive lithium ions between the cathode and anode. High purity electrolytes are a core component of lithium-ion batteries. The most commonly used electrolyte is comprised of lithium salt, such as LiPF6 in an organic solution. There are many other kinds of materials that are used as electrolytes. All of them are based on a lithium-containing material that allows for the easy diffusion of lithium.

In addition to lithium salt, a range of additives needs to be included in the finished electrolyte to give the required properties to the electrolyte solution. These lithium-ion battery electrolyte additives improve the stability by preventing degradation of the solution. The specific electrolyte formulation will vary depending on the specific anode and cathode materials being used, however it is important to keep in mind that the specific additives will impact overall battery performance, especially in high energy density automotive battery applications.

Liquid electrolytes are most commonly used today. Solid State and polymer electrolytes are being researched, but are not commonly used today.

Anode Materials

Graphite is the dominant active anode material in lithium-ion batteries, increasingly blended with small amounts of silicon to raise energy density; alternatives such as lithium titanate are used in niche applications. Graphite’s layered crystal structure makes it well suited as an anode: lithium ions are intercalated, i.e. “sandwiched”, between its layers.

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Cathode Materials